Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 brill.com/acss Lamps from a Sanctuary of Eleusinian Goddesses – “Beregovoï-4”1 Alexeï Zavoïkin,* Denis Zhuravlev** Abstract The sanctuary known as Beregovoï-4 is situated on the Taman Peninsula (Kerch Strait between the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea), 5 km north-west of the ancient polis of Patraios. The large amount of terracotta figurines and other sacral objects, in conjunction with the absence of any groups of buildings, testifies clearly to the fact that this archaeological site was a sanctuary. The contexts of the finds are extremely significant – there are simple altars – escharae – made from stones and mud bricks, burnt places, sometimes covered with sea grass and containing numerous pits filled with charcoal and ash, situated in the north-west corner of the site. All the lamps originated from the upper level, which can be dated to a period from the 4th to the first quarter of the 1st century BC. There is a complete absence of lamps in the earliest levels of this sanctuary (late-6th to the first half of the 5th century BC). Most lamps have several tiers (ranging from 2 to 6/7) and several nozzles. They were never used for lighting (the nozzles very often do not even have holes connecting them to the oil reservoir). Small pieces predominate among the several hundred fragments of these lamps found at the sanctuary. Their state of preservation makes it clear that they must have been broken deliberately during rituals (most probably at the end of the latter). Almost complete lamps (broken into large pieces) were found in the upper level, in the turf. Highly significant for our purposes is the fact that multi-nozzle lamps of a similar shape have been recorded at the sanctuary on Mount Maïskaya situated not far from Phanagoria – the largest polis of the Asiatic Bosporus. A remarkable parallel for our lamps originated from the sanctuary of Demeter at Selinunt in Sicily, where many types of multi-nozzle lamps were found. Dozens of other parallels originated from the territory of Sicily, Italy and Greece, where broken multinozzle lamps, often without any traces of burning, have been found at sanctuaries of Demeter and Persephone. 1 This article was prepared within the framework of a project financed by the Russian Foundation for Humanities (No. 12-01-00122а). The completion of the article was made possible thanks to a grant from the Alexander von Humbold Stiftung, which enabled one of the authors to work in the library of the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut in Berlin. The drawings for the article were made by I. V. Rukavishnikova and the photographs were taken by D. Zhuravlev and A. Zavoïkin. The authors are grateful to L. Chrzanovski (Switzerland), C. Bémont (France) and B. Lindros Wohl (USA) for valuable advice they provided, while the article was being written. * Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of sciences, 19, Ulyanov St., Moscow, Russia, Email bospor@inbox.ru. ** State Historical Museum, 1, Red Square, 109012, Moscow, Russia, Email denzhuravlev@ mail.ru. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2013 DOI: 10.1163/15700577-12341253 156 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Keywords Black Sea region, Bosporan kingdom, Patraios, Greek religion, Eleusinian cults, lamps The settlement and the “Beregovoï-4” sanctuary associated with it are situated at the western end of the Fontalovksiï Peninsula on the shore of the Cimmerian Bosporus (mod. Kerch Strait) approximately 5 km north-west of the Classical city of Patraios (Figs. 1; 2). Knowledge of their existence dates from the end of the 18th century. In 1961 and 1963 the settlement was investigated by the Taman Expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences.2 On the basis of finds from the excavated levels the site was dated to a period from the 6th to the 1st century BC. In 1981 excavations were carried out at the site by Ya. M. Paromov,3 who – on the basis of surface finds – concluded Fig. 1. Map of the western part of the Fontalovskiï Peninsula. 2 Sokolskiï 1963, 87-89. 3 Paromov 1981, 29-30; 1992, 188-192, fig. 30; Abramov & Paromov 1993, 48-49. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 157 Fig. 2. Part of an aerial photograph of the area surrounding the site. that the area of the site was approximately 46.5 ha and that it had been used from the 6th century BC to the 3rd century AD. In the period 1986-1988, B. G. Peters was excavating at the Beregovoï-4 site. He made two small trenches in the northern part of the site. In the central part on a cape, cut off by gullies on the north and south side, at its highest point (Fig. 3) excavation work led to an interesting discovery. In the upper level of the archaeological deposits fragments of terracotta figurines were found, some of which were almost complete, various small jugs and phials, coins, arrowheads, beads and lamps. With ample justification the researcher suggested that he had come across the remains of a sanctuary. In 1999-2002 and then again in 2004, research was continued at the site,4 including the sanctuary, where within an area of 500 m² a unique cultic complex linked with the cult of fertility goddesses was cleared, dating from a period between the turn of the 6th century BC and the mid-1st century BC. The link between this cult and the landscape had been determined by two factors. Firstly the gullies on each side of the cape – north and south – where the sanctuary was situated formed the mouth area of the watercourses, the 4 See Zavoïkin & Sudarev 2002; 2003. 158 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 3. Topographical plan of the sanctuary “Beregovoï-4”. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 159 Fig. 4. View of the sanctuary and the shore of the Kerch Strait from the south-east. sources of which were on the western slope of Mount Gorelaya (Kuku-Oba). At the present time at the base of the cape a dam has been erected, which cuts off the southern flat-bottom valley from the sea. As a result of this the Orlovskiï Pond has formed, which is fed by the water-table and does not dry out even in the dry season. Secondly, approximately 2 km to the east there rises a mud volcano – Mount Gorelaya – a direct route to the Underworld (Fig. 5).5 Cults of chthonic deities6 were often linked to places of this kind (for instance, the sanctuary on Mount Maïskaya south of Phanagoria).7 The rituals enacted in such sanctuaries were closely linked with the elements of water and fire.8 The archaeological deposits in the sanctuary (with a thickness of up to 0.500.60 m) formed a small hill on the ancient ground surface (clearly visible in 5 The last eruption took place on February 24, 1794 leading to a powerful release of gases, fire and black smoke (Pallas 1883, 80-83). 6 We refer our readers to substantial bibliographies dedicated to sanctuaries, including those of Demeter and Persephone/Kore: Sfameni-Gasparo 1986; Marinatos, Hägg 1993; Lattanzi et alii 1996; Hinz 1998; Miles 1998. Bibliography: Østby 1993, 192-227. 7 Маrchenko 1962; 1963; Egorova, Il’ina & Kutinova 2008. 8 For more detail, see Zavoïkin 2006b, 61-76. 160 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 5. View of the sanctuary “Beregovoï-4” and the mud volcano Gorelaya (Kuku-Oba) from the west. a 1958 aerial photograph – Fig. 2). The thickness of the deposits decreases gradually from the centre to the periphery until they finally disappear. Strictly speaking, no single level covering the whole cultural layer at the sanctuary took shape: there is a series of features which differ in date and character (cultic areas with sacrifices; various types of altars – made of stone and mud brick above the ground and also recesses or pits, in which votive offerings were placed; small mud-brick walls of the enclosure for the sacred area and so on) and earth ‘framing’ the above, which would appear to be linked with the natural process of soil formation. Pits or disturbed soil were not identified at the sanctuary, apart from a series of (approx. 20) escharae pits in the north-eastern corner of the sanctuary, which were full of charcoal and ash. This means that, if we take into account the fact that during the period of almost 500 years over which it evolved up until the present day there had never been anything at the site other than a sanctuary, all objects had remained in place in the actual positions in which the creators of the sanctuary had left them. The beginning of the sanctuary, to judge from the earliest finds, dates from the end of the 6th century BC and it ceased being used in approximately the A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 161 middle of the 1st century BC, since virtually9 no objects of a date any later than that have been found. A crucial indication for the latest date was the absence of pale-clay amphorae with double-rolled handles.10 Meanwhile such categories of mass-scale material as coins11 and pottery with relief decoration (exclusively Ephesian imports, since no group of Bosporan vessels was found) enable us to specify the first quarter of the 1st century BC as the final date. Before thorough analysis of all materials has been completed, two periods can already be singled out in the history of the sanctuary: the early period – end of the 6th and first half of the 5th century BC – and the late one after a considerable interval – beginning no later than the second half (or end) of the 4th century and lasting till the first half of the 1st century BC. The fact that there was not a wide range of groups of mass-scale material in the assemblage (of certain types of amphorae, black-glaze or painted pottery) obliges us to conclude that over the course of a whole century (if not longer) the sanctuary was abandoned. Despite the time-lag, it is possible to observe how customs for enacting the cultic rituals were passed down, although certain changes are to be noted in specific manifestations of the cult. During both periods mentioned above, this sanctuary had been a place where people had worshipped fertility gods. Before moving on to a description of how precisely this was done, it is as well to outline the nature of this particular cult. The absence of graffiti would appear to deprive us of any basis for confidently naming the deities who used to be worshipped in this place. On the other hand, some factors point us towards mythological ideas of the Eleusinian range: the association with fertility (the link with the element of water); the chthonic aspect (proximity of the entrance to Hades); the undoubted priority of female images in the repertoire of terracotta figurines – Demeter, Kore-Persephone (in the “late” period they are joined by Aphrodite, Dionysos, Cybele and Attis). The very absence of dedicatory inscriptions mentioning the names of venerated deities speaks in favour of this cult being associated with Mysteries as well. We also have at our disposal a still clearer criterion for identifying the “nameless goddesses”. On a red-clay hydriskos from one of the late buildings, where fires were lit, the following letters worked in white watercolour can clearly be made out: ΘΘΕ (Fig. 6, 1). There can be virtually no doubt 9 Exceptions: a red-glaze lamp found in eschara 4.2, 3rd century AD (Cat. No. 33); a disc of a ribbed lamp of the late-2nd or 3rd century AD (Cat. No. 34); a bronze coin dating from 47-30 BC (Zograf 1951, pl. XLIV, 9). 10 See Zavoïkin 2005c. 11 Type: Zograf 1951, pl. XLIII, 18. See Boldÿrev, Zavoïkin & Sudarev 2004, 189-194. 162 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 6. Pottery vessels from the sanctuary. that those three letters were the initials of the Eleusinian triad (the goddess [Demeter], the goddess [Persephone] and Eubouleus). It is more difficult to make out the dipinto worked in red paint on the body of another hydriskos: the letter Θ can clearly be made out under the handle and possibly even a second one and these are followed by another round sign. Finally, it is evidently no coincidence that in most of the complexes of this site three (or two) small vessels have been offered to the deities: Demeter and Kore/Persephone at any rate. The third deity could have been Pluto/Hades, Eubouleus/Triptolemos or Iacchos-Bacchos-Dionysos.12 Given that the confines of this short article make it impossible to discuss the details and variations of the rite, we shall provide instead a description in general terms outlining the main actions performed for it, the essential features of which remained the same throughout the period when this sanctuary was functioning. A fire would be lit on the (horizontal) area prepared for the rite. Usually the fire would be open to the elements, although on occasions it was confined inside a portable and ring-shaped pottery hearth. The faint remains of charring to be seen in the soil and the small amount of ash remains point to 12 See Zavoïkin 2002; 2003b. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 163 the fact that the fire had probably not been a large one (possibly only grass-like plants had been burnt there without any animal flesh or wood).13 The absence of animal bones points to the use of bloodless sacrifices (in the same level and in other features bones of birds were found [duck and quail] – also those of dogs and pigs and, less frequently, bones of sheep, goats and bovids, hares etc.).14 Near the fire (or in it after the flames had died down) sacrifices were laid out, which were covered over with sea grass and earth. As for votive offerings, the most frequent finds were miniature vessels (usually in groups of two or three) and more often than not hydriskoi (Fig. 6). This type of vessel is found as well in the form of appliqués on ring-shaped kernoi, fragments of which were also laid out as votive offerings, after they had been used as objects for the enactment of rituals. Miniature olpai were also found used for votive purposes: simple ones with a painted rim and a painted upper part of the handle; thin-walled striped ones of Attic origin; black-glaze ones. On one occasion a miniature black-figure oinochoe was found (Fig. 6, 9).15 Apart from a small quantity of vessels, terracotta votives have been found in the form of clusters of grapes, almond kernels, pomegranates, poppy seed-pods, flowers of the Araceae family and medallions: one of the latter was gilded and bore a head of Athena, while the other was with a depiction of a Gorgoneion.16 Examples of objects sculpted in terracotta were found in most cases in a fragmentary state (sometimes they had deliberately been broken into small pieces). The collection consists mainly of depictions of goddesses from the Demeter-Kore/Persephone range in various types and poses (seated on a throne or standing; protomes (Figs. 7-8) holding a pomegranate and flower; Demeter dressed in a kalaphos, “lamenting” and with a veil over her head and so on) and of varying date. Or they might be depictions of mythological figures connected with the cult of the above-mentioned goddesses. It is essential to draw attention to the paired figurines of goddesses and a pair of such figurines enthroned which were found together (Fig. 9).17 In the uppermost level excellent specimens of Dionysos masks were found (late-2nd or 13 Only in one complex of the sanctuary, cleared in 2000, were any well-preserved large pieces of charcoal found. In 2002 and 2004 a series of pits was discovered in the north-western corner of the sanctuary arranged in a compact cluster. They were filled with charcoal and ash and it is possible that embers from fires (before they had gone out) were collected together in them from all over the sacred site. Moreover, clearer traces of fire in some of the pits show that fires were actually lit inside some of them as well. 14 See Zavoïkin & Dobrovol’skaya 2007, 117-125. 15 Zavoïkin 2003b, 117, fig. 1, 3a-b, 4a-b, 5a-b. 16 See Zavoïkin 2003a. 17 Zavoïkin 2003b, 118, figs. 1-3. 164 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 7. Terracotta Demeter protome. Fig. 8. Terracotta Demeter protome. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 165 Fig. 9. Terracotta figurines – Goddess seated on a throne. early-1st century BC – Fig. 10).18 In that same uppermost level, figurines were found depicting Cybele, “Aphrodite sitting on a rock” (Fig. 11) and so on.19 As regards male figures, we find young Dionysos playing with a small dog20 and Attis (the handle of a black-glaze cup).21 18 It is appropriate also to mention the upper part of a figured vessel in the shape of Bacchos himself or one of the members of his thiasos and also the head of a figurine depicting Silenos. 19 See Zavoïkin 2007, 179-185. 20 Zavoïkin 2006a. 21 Numerous parallels for our materials are to be found among finds from a Nymphaion sanctuary devoted to Demeter dating from the 5th-2nd centuries BC (See Khudyak 1945, 158-162, pls. XV, 1-XVI, 1; XX, 1; XXI, 1-2) and on Mount Maïskaya (see Marchenko 1962; 1963; 1974). 166 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 10. Terracotta Dionysos mask. Apart from the sacrifices already referred to, modest items of female jewellery were also encountered: rings, earrings, beads, bracelets. It is possible that bronze arrow-heads were also used as votive offerings. In the upper level copper coins were also found dating from the last quarter of the 4th century through to the first quarter of the 1st century BC,22 although it was not common practice to use money for offerings in the early period of the sanctuary’s history. The excavated levels also yielded up a small number of fragments of varying dates from painted (black-figure) ceramics and cups with relief decoration which had deliberately been broken: they had been made using moulds (and bore depictions of plants and narrative motifs). Certain household objects were re-used as cultic ones. This can be deduced from the correlation between the numbers of upper and lower (far more common) parts of vessels and from the fact that the lower parts of vessels23 were often recorded with their bases uppermost, as if they had been deliberately trodden into the ground. Finds of this kind are widespread in the funerary sites of the Bosporus.24 There is no 22 See Boldÿrev, Zavoïkin & Sudarev 2004. 23 Cf. Tul’pe 1999, 338-243; Zavoïkin 2005a, 152-176. 24 Sorokina & Sudarev 2001, 134-136. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 11. Terracotta figurine – Aphrodite seated on a rock. 167 168 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 doubt that this arrangement of the objects under discussion represents an element of ritual practices. Among the votive offerings at the site were mollusc shells and ovoid pebbles, which is perfectly natural in the context of a fertility cult. Feet from Chian amphorae of the 4th century BC represented phallic symbols which would be in conjunction with finds of amphora feet with broad bases and recesses under them.25 Apart from complexes where fires were lit, two stone structures were found. One was ring-shaped with a paved floor made up of flat stones. Inside it a large protome was found in the shape of Demeter wearing a stephanos and a veil decorated with red paint (Fig. 8): next to that terracotta figurine the medallion mentioned earlier was found bearing a depiction of Athena’s helmeted head and also pebbles and duck bones. Another eschara – rectangular in plan – consisted of vertically arranged flat stones and had a stone base as well. Its in-fill contained ash, charcoal and the bones of ducks, quails, hares and hedgehogs. In the corner stood a single-nozzled lamp bearing traces of soot. At a depth of 20-40 cm in the central part of the complex, parts of a mudbrick enclosure were found which would appear evidently to have been rectangular in shape (the long sides are calculated to have measured c. 12,8 m in length) and to have been orientated in accordance with the points of the compass. It proved possible to trace the eastern corner and a large part of the southeast wall, also a section of the SE wall adjacent to the south corner, which had a stepped altar built up against it on the outside, and finally the north-west corner of the structure, which would not have been built earlier than the 2nd century BC. Various other structures – also made of mud brick – (such as altars and ‘paved areas’) were built up against the walls on the outside and inside. Above the ruins of this structure a layer of sea grass was recorded, on the surface of which the last cultic acts in the life of the sanctuary would have been carried out. In the northern part of this area these involved the offering of terracotta figurines (for the most part in a highly fragmentary state, although some were in a better state of preservation),26 while in the southern part there was a large quantity of ritual multi-tier lamps (both wheel-turned and handmoulded), which for the most part had been broken into many pieces at the find-spot, to which reference will be made in detail later in this article. Here vessel bases were also recorded, including some which lay upside down. 25 See Zavoïkin 2005a. 26 Zavoïkin 2007, 181, fig. 1, 3. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 169 Higher up than all other features was one find which was not characteristic for the other levels within the cultural layer. It was a compact cluster of broken sheep/goat bones (from various parts of skeletons), which would appear to have been the remnants of some ritual feast. It is clear beyond any doubt that this discarded debris was not ‘coincidental’, since among the bones there was a small jug, which had been broken in two: the upper part had been pushed into the soil neck first, while the lower part had been fixed into the ground with its base at the bottom. The meaning behind this action is not clear, but what seems to have taken place is a libation offered to the gods of the Underworld. Finally mention should be made of the unusual objects made of stones (one or several), arranged within one and the same area as the escharae pits, containing pieces of charcoal and ash, in the north-western part of the sanctuary. They probably served as some kind of markers indicating the place next to the small pits, in which offerings had been buried, or performed some other function unknown to us. Layout of the Site In addition to the terracotta figurines and the ritual vessels, one of the most striking and impressive categories of finds, which enables us straightaway to draw conclusions regarding the cultic nature of the complex discovered in the central part of the “Beregovoï-4” site (on a cape cut off to the north and south from the rest of the settlement by deep gullies), is that of lamps. In view of the fact that in the course of the rites almost all lamps were deliberately broken (some of them into very small pieces), it is impossible to determine their number, even approximately. It is important nevertheless to point out that the fragments of these multi-nozzle lamps within the cultural layer exceed in quantity in certain places even such mass-scale categories of finds as fragments of amphorae or other vessels. Finds of lamp fragments are concentrated in the first two spits of the cultural layer (87.3%). Moreover 39.8% were concentrated in Quadrant V and 19.6% in the adjacent quadrant (to the south), namely Quadrant IX (the two quadrants together accounted for 59.4% of the fragments). Around that compact nucleus and in three other adjacent quadrants (to the south and west), a further 25.3% of the fragments was recorded (bringing the total to 84.7%). Another nucleus, but less important than the first one, was found in Quadrants XVII and XVIII (in the north-western part of the complex) – 6.7% (52 fragments). It is of interest to note one further detail: of the four27 single-nozzle 27 In total seven of these were found (complete lamps and fragments). 170 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 lamps (two nozzles and two complete lamps – Inv./Feature 4.2-99; Б-4/01) on which traces of soot had survived, two were found in Quadrants IX-XVI and one in Quadrant XVII (a further one originated from eschara 4.2). What therefore emerges quite clearly is: firstly that the lamps (for the most part multi-tier and multi-nozzle specimens) were a characteristic feature of cultic rites for the later period in the functioning of the sanctuary (from the mid-4th to the mid-1st century BC),28 since in the earliest levels of the cultural layer and features (with dates from the end of the 6th or the first half of the 5th century BC) no lamps were found; secondly that they were a part of the cultic equipment (more likely than votive offerings), which was used in the course of general rituals (festivals). Traces of the use of fire in the Demeter and Kore sanctuary were recorded on numerous occasions. Apart from the areas set aside for rituals, on the surface of which traces of fire were noted, and small portable (ring-shaped) hearths, special mention should be made of the small pits (up to 50 cm in depth) found in the north-western corner of the shrine,29 which were filled with charcoal and ash. These fire altars (escharae) which played some kind of role in the enactment of rituals would appear to have constituted some sort of parallel for the volcanic fire of the Underworld (of Hell). Apart from the above-mentioned concentration of large lamp fragments30 (some of these can be re-assembled to form virtually complete specimens), two other interesting find-spots deserve to be taken into consideration. 28 See Zavoïkin 2005c, 329-333. 29 It is probably appropriate to refer the reader to comparative material from the sanctuary in the part of the Crimea bordering on the Sea of Azov. When discussing Eleusinian mysteries, A. A. Maslennikov writes, among other things: “Inseparably linked with these is the cult of sacred fire, which explains the large quantity of lamps and censers. The latter (as indeed the ‘former’ as well – A. Z., D. Zh), both hand-moulded and wheel-turned items, probably – in conjunction with the absence of traces of burning of long duration (ash heaps and so on) – testify to the fact that bloodless sacrifices and offerings were used (wreaths, fruit, flowers, cereals)” (Maslennikov 1997, 161). The same can be said of the sanctuary at the Beregovoï-4 site with one difference, however: in 2002 and 2004, in a small area (approx. 50 m²) in the north-western part of the site, over 20 pits were found filled to the brim with charcoal and ashes. To judge from the striking traces of fires, the remains from them were tipped, while still hot, into these bothroi or fires were lit in the pits. 30 As another, although very distant, parallel for the context of this find of multi-nozzle lamps from the Beregovoï-4 site, we might refer to a find made in 2005-2006 in Pantikapaion in a 1stcentury BC level. At the foot of a rock, which provides the base for a whole row of residential or public buildings, several dozen whole and fragmentary pale-clay multi-nozzle lamps were found in a discard level, which were of Bosporan production and incorporated 3, 5, 7 and 9 nozzles. There is no doubt that they did not turn up in the discarded rubbish by chance. It is likely that they had been used, when some cultic rite was being enacted. It is worth mentioning another interesting fact as well: the closest parallels for the Bosporan pale-clay multi-nozzle lamps of the 1st century BC, which one of the authors of this article has been able to observe personally, came A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 171 In the first of these contexts – a rectangular eschara 4.2 consisting of stone slabs, a single-nozzle lit lamp had been positioned (Cat. No. 33) and next to it small bones were found belonging to birds (duck and quail) and small animals (hedgehogs and hares), charcoal and ash.31 Next to this sacrificial altar there was a round stone eschara in which – apart from coals, bird bones and pebbles – a large Demeter protome, a gilded medallion with a depiction of Athena32 and a cowrie shell were found. It would appear that the first eschara with the lamp had been dedicated to Persephone. Meanwhile the chronology of these structures is not completely clear: eschara 4.2, if the date of the lamp is taken into account, cannot date from a period earlier than the 2nd century AD and is more likely to date from the 3rd century AD – probably of a significantly later date than the main period for the functioning of the sanctuary. In the second context (Features 5.1a, b and 5.2) the upper parts of two handmoulded, multi-nozzle lamps (Cat. Nos. 15-16) and the lower part of a wheelturned, multi-nozzle lamp (Cat. No. 14) were found which had been positioned vertically and filled with animal bones. Classification of the Lamps When embarking on the classification and description of the lamps from the sanctuary (for the terminology involved see Fig. 12), we should point out the absolute predominance of multi-tier, multi-nozzle lamps as opposed to singlenozzle lamps, of which – as it turned out – only seven were found (three broken nozzles and two virtually complete ones [Cat. No. 31 and No. 33], one relief discos [Cat. No. 34],33 one handle in the form of a depiction of a leaf worked in relief [Cat. No. 35]; lamps of the predominant variety were represented by several dozen finds, while small fragments of the latter numbered in hundreds). from an extremely remote location – the sanctuary in Petra (Jordan), where they also originated from a discard level and had been mixed up with animal bones. This level had formed as a result of the clearing of rooms in which ritual feasts took place. 31 Some parallels for this are known at other North Pontic sites. In 2003 an interesting complex was discovered by the Bosporan Archaeological Expedition of the Pushkin Museum – probably a sacrifice made when the foundations were being laid for the building of a major structure. In a rectangular pit the carcass of a sheep (or goat) had been burnt and later a three-nozzle lamp with a narrow tube down the centre and three small cups had been placed on the ashes after they had cooled. There was no doubt as to the sacral function of this complex, which had been built at the turn of the 4th century BC (see Zhuravlev & Zhuravleva 2005, pl. 141, figs. 1-4; Tolstikov 2006, 323, fig. 16). It should be noted that there was a complete absence of any traces of soot on this lamp. 32 Zavoïkin 2003b, No. 7. 33 The relief discos of the sunburst lamp dating from the 3rd century bears no traces of fire. 172 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 12. Diagram for describing a lamp and its constituent parts. One difference of fundamental importance between the two groups should be noted: traces of burning are typical only for some of the single-nozzle lamps. Multi-Nozzle Lamps The multi-nozzle lamps found during excavation of the sanctuary vary considerably.34 The vast majority of the lamps are multi-tier (with between 2 and 6/7 tiers), multi-nozzle lamps. They were never used for lighting (often the 34 See certain preliminary publications of individual specimens: Peters & Lebedeva 1996; Zavoïkin 2003a, figs. II, 8-9; IV, 2; Zhuravlev & Zavoïkin 2007; Zavoïkin & Zhuravlev 2005, figs. 1-3. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 173 nozzles did not even have a hole right through them so as to link them with the oil reservoir). To judge from their state of preservation, they were broken in the course of the ritual (or at the end of it). Relatively complete lamps (broken into large parts) were found in the upper part of the level in Quadrants V (Feature 5.4) and I. Another significant detail is the indubitable use in parallel of multi-nozzle lamps made on a potter’s wheel and those moulded by hand, made of coarse clay and badly fired.35 When singling out the groups of “hand-moulded” lamps, it should be noted specifically that some of these artefacts bear clear traces of having been worked on a potter’s wheel (in particular this applies to their terminals). At the same time there is the impression that they were deliberately moulded in a coarse fashion (which is in accordance with the special “coarse” composition of the clay used). They were fired in a regime different from that used for the wheel-turned lamps (which were of a characteristic brick-red colour). As a result the “hand-moulded” lamps are regularly of a brown-grey colour on the surface, while they are black-grey in the sherds. It is possible that this was some sort of imitation of the hand-moulded lamps, the use of which was probably, for some reason or other, attributed to tradition.36 Type 1 (Cat. Nos. 1-9; No. 9A; Figs. 13, 1-6; 14, 7-9, 9A; 15, 1, 9). Bell-shaped multi-nozzle, multi-tier lamps with several tiers of nozzles. Between the tiers rectangular holes have been made in the body. The only well-preserved specimen has no less than 7 tiers. At the top the lamp would appear to have been crowned, judging from appearances, by a terminal with one or more nozzles.37 The lamp with catalogue number 9 could be singled out as a separate variant, since under the tier there is a ledge/ridge worked in relief. Type 2 (Cat. Nos. 10-13; Figs. 14, 10-11; 15, 10-11; 16, 12-13; 17, 12-13). Two-tier bell-shaped lamps. The foot is cylindrical and its base is turned outwards. Cat. No. 10 makes possible a complete reconstruction of the shape of this lamp, which is crowned by a terminal with two nozzles. Type 3 (Cat. No. 14; Figs. 16, 14; 17, 14). A multi-nozzle lamp (with at least three tiers) bi-conical in shape and with rectangular holes cut through the wall of each tier. 35 Zavoïkin 2003a, 111-112. 36 Recently V. G. Zubarev published an interesting assemblage from the fortified settlement of “Belinskoe” in the Eastern Crimea. On altars, over and above other finds, hand-moulded lamps turned upside down were discovered (Zubarev 2003, 140-141). Lamps, including hand-moulded specimens, have been found in other rural sanctuaries of the Bosporus, some of which were linked with the cult of Demeter and Kore (Maslennikov 1997, 164-165). 37 A well-known lamp with four tiers of nozzles from the Malophoros Demeter sanctuary at Selinunt had been reconstructed with a handle to carry it by (Gabrici 1927, fig. 163 in the centre; see also fig. 25, 1). For the lamp from the Taman Peninsula published here there is no basis for a similar reconstruction. 174 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 13. Lamps and lamp fragments from the sanctuary. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 14. Lamps and lamp fragments from the sanctuary. 175 176 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 15. Lamps and lamp fragments from the sanctuary. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 16. Lamps and lamp fragments from the sanctuary. 177 178 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 17. Lamps and lamp fragments from the sanctuary. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 179 Type 4 (Cat. Nos. 15-17; Figs. 16, 15, 15A; 17, 15-16; 18, 16-17). Hand-moulded lamps of conical shape with holes passing right through the nozzles, protruding beyond the sides of the tier, which appears like an imitation of an oil reservoir. Terminals of Multi-Nozzle Lamps Variant 1 (Cat. No. 18; Figs. 18, 18; 19, 18). Round terminal with two nozzles. The base is lost. The walls of the terminal which taper downwards merge with the upper part of the body. Variant 2 (Cat. Nos. 19-21; Figs. 18, 19-21; 19, 19-21). Terminals with two nozzles38 are typical for two-tier lamps of Type 2 made exclusively on a potter’s wheel, carefully fired and with four nozzles in the lower tier. Variant 3 (Cat. No. 22; Figs. 18, 22; 19, 22). A terminal with three nozzles the profile of which calls to mind a lamp of a small-jug type. Variant 4 (Cat. No. 23; Figs. 18, 23; 19, 23). Terminal with three nozzles in the shape of a flattened plate. Variant 5 (Cat. No. 24; Figs. 20, 24; 21, 24). A terminal with three nozzles and a profile similar to that of Type 1 terminals, but with a base. Variant 6 (Cat. Nos. 25-28; Figs. 20, 25-28; 21, 25-27; 22, 28). Hand-moulded terminals with three nozzles. Among the lamps with three nozzles there are two specimens (Variant 3, Cat. No. 22 and Variant 5, Cat. No. 24) which were wheel-turned39 and five (Variant 4, Cat. No. 23; Variant 6, Cat. Nos. 25-28) which were hand-moulded (made from coarse brown-grey and lightly fired clay with large inclusions of shell, chamotte and sand). The special features of the clay confirm that the specimens were moulded for a firing regime different from that used for wheelturned items, for which the clay would have been prepared differently and the moulding and firing would have been of a high quality. The parallel existence of these two types of pottery traditions underlines the particular importance of these two groups of lamps, i.e. the difference between them. Variant 7 (Cat. No. 29; Figs. 20, 29; 22, 29). A wheel-turned terminal with four nozzles and a profile identical to Cat. No. 18 and No. 24. Variant 8 (Cat. No. 30; Figs. 22, 30; 23, 30). Hand-moulded terminal with five nozzles.40 38 It is assumed that at an Eleusinian sanctuary ‘two’ would signify Demeter and Kore/Persephone or Persephone and Hades. 39 These would appear to have been two-tier lamps with four nozzles in the lower tier. 40 This specimen stands out on account of its large dimensions. In general this group of lamps is heavier in appearance and larger than the wheel-turned specimens (including those with three 180 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 18. Lamps and lamp fragments from the sanctuary. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 19. Lamps and lamp fragments from the sanctuary. 181 182 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 20. Lamps and lamp fragments from the sanctuary. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 21. Lamps and lamp fragments from the sanctuary. 183 184 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 22. Lamps and lamp fragments from the sanctuary. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 185 We should note that the ‘wheel-turned’ lamps had terminals with 2, 3 or 4 nozzles (Cat. No. 29),41 while the hand-moulded ones only had 3 or 5 nozzles. If we examine carefully the terminals of the multi-tier lamps (first and foremost the hand-moulded ones), we cannot help but notice an interesting detail: they have all been carefully separated from the rest of the lamp and do not have any random ledges. It is clear that they were made separately from the bodies of the lamps and were attached to them with a thin layer of clay before firing. This meant that terminals could be easily and naturally separated from the bodies of the lamps. It was of course only possible if this step was taken deliberately in advance. If the lamps were simply due to be broken (after the rite), it is unlikely that all the hand-moulded terminals would have been removed strictly along the join, without any chips resulting (the impression emerges that the chips were carefully ‘re-touched’). It thus becomes difficult to shake off the impression that the lamp terminals were the objects of ‘secondary usage’.42 It is worth pointing out that two of the three-nozzle hand-moulded terminals (Cat. No. 26 and No. 22 – from Feature 12.1) had survived almost intact. The remainder had been broken into pieces: two three-nozzle terminals (Cat. No. 25 and No. 23) and one with five nozzles (Cat. No. 30) into two pieces and a terminal with three nozzles (Cat. No. 28) into three.43 The situation was rather different regarding the wheel-turned terminals. Four of them had been broken off (as in the case of the hand-moulded terminals) strictly along the join (Cat. Nos. 19-21). One (Cat. No. 24) had been broken off a little below the join; another – No. 29 with four nozzles – had been moulded in one piece with the body (but had no base) and roughly broken off, a little below the narrow part of the neck; and one other (Cat. No. 18) would appear not to have had any base either and it had been broken off carelessly (it had possibly broken into several pieces as a result). Nozzles of the kind described above decorated the body of lamps that were conical (better described as bell-shaped): reservoirs for oil were applied to the outer surface of the body in several tiers looking like ‘saucers’ (naturally without a base) and from these nozzles branched out (four or more and with larger nozzles). Only one terminal (Cat. No. 23) is set apart by a certain ‘gracefulness’: its reservoir has been made in the shape of a small ‘saucer’. 41 It differs from all the rest, since it does not have a base: the hole passing right through it broadens out towards the bottom into the main body of the lamp. 42 We have used this term in inverted commas because it is possible that the use of a lamp terminal separately from the rest of the lamp was part of one and the same rite. It may, however, not have been the case. 43 We do not make so bold as to attribute to that fact any special meaning, but we still considered it essential to mention, if for no other reason than that the deliberate breaking of the feet from various vessels into two pieces can be seen to have taken place at this sanctuary. 186 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 numbers in the lower tiers) with holes through which the wick was meant to be threaded. Although, as has already been pointed out, we did not find a single nozzle with traces of soot on these lamps, some of them do indeed constitute potentially functioning specimens (Cat. Nos. 10-12). Yet almost all the lamps are precisely models of lighting devices, which it would be completely impossible actually to use. In some cases the holes in the nozzles are too narrow (even if a wick could be threaded through them it would not be able to burn because there would be no room for air). In others – the holes in the nozzles are only indicated at the top and they do not go down as far as the oil reservoirs. In another group the holes in the nozzles not only fail to go as far as the oil reservoirs, but they pass into the main part of the vessel and go right through the lamp), while the ‘reservoir’ itself does not have the required depth (enough to hold the oil) and serves a purely symbolic purpose. Lamps with a Single Nozzle The only complete black-glaze lamp with a single nozzle (Cat. No. 31) is of the 24C Prime type (according to the classification devised by R. Howland). This lamp is of Attic production and, according to the materials of the Athenian Agora, could date from a period between the end of the 5th century and the second quarter of the 4th century BC.44 In the collection there is the foot of a lamp, which is in the form of a shaft with flat discos all the way up it (Figs. 23-24; Cat. No. 32). Similar lamp feet have been recorded in various parts of the Classical world. The British Museum holds a single-nozzle lamp with a foot similar in shape found in Gela (Sicily), dating from between the end of the third quarter of the 4th century BC and the first quarter of the 3rd.45 We should also note that there were lamps with a similar foot among the votive offerings of the Archaic period in Gela, to which reference has already been made.46 Most of the lamps from the North Pontic region with a similar foot bore less decoration in relief47 and have a broad date range. The closest parallel is provided by a lamp which has survived intact and originated from the pottery workshop in Gorgippia. I. T. Kruglikova dates the assemblage to the beginning of the 2nd century BC.48 At our site only three lamps were found which – as shall be pointed out later – are outside the general date range, from a much later period. These 44 45 46 47 48 Howland 1958, 66-67, pl. 37. Bailey 1975, 312-313; pls. 124-125, Q671. Orlandini 1963, pl. VII, e, f, g. Waldhauer 1914, pl. L, 259. Kruglikova 1962, 222, fig. 5; p. 224. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 187 Fig. 23. Lamps and lamp fragments from the sanctuary. finds are the discos of a sunburst lamp (Figs. 23-24; Cat. No. 34), the date of which cannot be earlier than the second quarter of the 3rd century AD,49 a redclay lamp made using a mould (Figs. 23-24; Cat. No. 33) decorated with two round appliqués near the hole for the wick50 and a fragment from the handle of a red-glaze lamp made in the shape of a leaf (Figs. 23-24; Cat. No. 35). All these lamps, one of which stemmed from eschara 4.2 can be dated to the 2nd or 3rd, or to be more precise, the 3rd century AD. 49 Cf. Sorochan 1982; Chrzanovski & Zhuravlev 1997, 133-140. 50 Cf. Arsenʼeva 1988, 73, fig. XIX, 4. 188 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Fig. 24. Lamps and lamp fragments from the sanctuary. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 189 On the Role of Light and Methods of Lighting in the Eleusinian Mysteries It is well-known that fire played an extremely important role in the worship of the deities from the Underworld.51 In particular, Persephone was regarded as a goddess of fire. She was appealed to together with Hephaistos, god of fire (Eurip. Phaëth. 268-269 Diggle). In the course of the Great Mysteries at Eleusis, before the key moment of the sacred ritual when, on orders from the hierophant, the entrance into the anaktoron was opened, flames flared up brightly. Pseudo-Hippolytus (in his Refutation of all Heresies, V, 8, 40) wrote that the hierophant carried out the nocturnal ceremony “close to a large fire”.52 Lighting devices were always an attribute of Demeter and, in particular, of Persephone.53 In Onkios, according to the description provided by Pausanias, there was a wooden statue of the goddess in Demeter’s shrine: “The statue of the [Demeter] Erinys has the basket in her left hand, and a torch in her right” (Paus. VIII, 25, 7). In other places Pausanias also depicts Demeter holding a torch (Paus. VIII, 37, 4). One of the striking examples of a depiction of the main Eleusinian deities holding torches is a relief dating from the 4th century BC.54 In the left-hand part of the relief, Demeter is shown holding a sceptre and seated on a basket used during the Mysteries and next to a table is Kore with a double torch, adorning her mother with a wreath (next to them a nude youth had raised a small jug after scooping up wine from out of a pelike). In the right-hand part of the relief is a reclining god (reminiscent of Dionysos rather than Pluto), above whose head is written Θεόι: in his right hand he is holding a rhyton and in his left a phiale. Next to the god at his feet sits his wife (above whose head is written Θεάι), who differs from Kore both as regards her facial features and her head-dress. In the opinion of K. Kerényi, this was “the true face of Persephone on the Night of the Mysteries”.55 Another interesting depiction of the group of Eleusinian deities, and the most famous, is the so-called Great Eleusinian Relief (450-443 BC). It was found in Eleusis (now held in the National Museum of Athens) and portrays the two goddesses with Triptolemos56 between them: Persephone is depicted 51 Furley 1981; Parisinou 2000. On the link between the sanctuary and underground fire and volcanism see the detailed account in Zavoïkin 2006b, 70-71. 52 Kerényi 2000, 111, 119 and note 88. 53 Novosadskiï 1887, 178; Mylonas 1961; Parisinou 2000, 136-150. 54 LIMC, IV.2, Demeter 385. 55 Kerényi 2000, 165-166. 56 A number of authors, including the authoritative scholar K. Clinton, maintain that it is definitely not Triptolemos depicted in this relief, but Demeter’s son Plutos (see Clinton, Palagia 2003). On depictions of Plutos, see LIMC, VII.1, 416-420; VII.2, 341, Ploutos 1-3; 342, Ploutos 12-35. 190 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 with a torch.57 The hero is standing between Kore, who is holding a long torch in her left hand, and Demeter with a sceptre who is handing him ears of corn. The main figure holding the torch in scenes depicting the Eleusinian mysteries is Persephone. The brightness of the torch symbolizes vivid images of the blissful afterlife promised to those who take part in the Mysteries. Persephone always holds a torch, or even two, regardless of whether she appears alone amongst the Eleusinian deities, with her mother amidst Muses or with Iacchos. In a relief dating from the early 5th century BC Persephone is shown bearing two torches as she approaches the seated figure of Demeter.58 In a relief of the first quarter of the 4th century BC Persephone is depicted with two torches before an altar59 and, in another relief dating from the late 4th century BC, Persephone is bearing two long torches as she greets a procession of Mystae and next to her is a seated figure of Demeter.60 Demeter is also often portrayed holding a torch. A typical depiction of her is to be found on a red-figure amphora of 470 BC: Demeter is wearing a long chiton and holding a burning torch in one hand and a sceptre in the other.61 In scenes depicting the Eleusinian Mysteries, Demeter’s attributes are usually a sceptre and ears of corn, while Persephone holds a torch (or torches). A relief of the second half of the 4th century BC portrays mother and daughter with all the symbols of their divine nature.62 Persephone, dressed in a chiton and cloak and holding two torches in her raised right hand, is standing next to Demeter. In another relief of the same period there is a scene showing the worship of the goddesses.63 Demeter is sitting in front of an altar behind which stands Persephone holding long torches in each hand. Another similar relief depicts the figure of Persephone leaning against a low column, holding a long torch in her left hand and with a seated Demeter nearby.64 Numerous depictions of a similar kind are to be found in vase-painting.65 Torches are always to be found in depictions of Eleusinian processions: Hekate and Iacchos66 are depicted with torches on a votive tablet from Ninnion. 57 Mylonas 1961, fig. 68; Kerényi 2000, 140, fig. 36; Clinton & Palagia 2003, pl. 64; Harrison 2000, 268, fig. 1. 58 Kanta 1979, 34-35, fig. 4. 59 LIMC, VIII.2, 642, Persephone 22. 60 LIMC, VIII.2, Persephone 70. 61 LIMC, IV.2, 576, Demeter 220. 62 LIMC, VIII.2, Persephone 45. 63 LIMC, VIII.2, Persephone 71. 64 LIMC, VIII.2, Persephone 74. 65 LIMC, VIII.2, Persephone 87, 98, 101, 102, 171. 66 Parisinou 2000, pl. 17, see also Clinton 1992, 73-74. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 191 In a scene of Herakles’ purification on a sarcophagus from Torrenova there is a priestess and also a dadouchos67 or Eubouleus depicted with two torches.68 Another figure associated with the Eleusinian Mysteries, for which a distinguishing feature is also the presence of torches, was Iacchos – the young leader of the procession of Mystae. The statue of Iacchos standing with a sculpture of Persephone and Demeter in Demeter’s sanctuary in the place where the sacred processions began is described by Pausanias: “The temple of Demeter is close to this: its images are Demeter and the Child, and Iacchos holding a torch: an inscription in the wall in Attic lettering says these are by Praxiteles” (Paus. I, 2, 4; translated by Peter Levi). Apart from the main Eleusinian deities, other chthonic deities are also depicted with torches, who in one way or another are associated with the abduction and liberation of Kore. First and foremost this involves Hekate, who according to mythology was the only goddess who helped Demeter in her search for her daughter. Hekate’s main accoutrement was the pair of torches with which she is depicted in scenes linked to the Eleusinian motif. On a krater dating from 440 BC, Hekate is depicted standing behind Triptolemos’ chariot and she is holding two long torches: one is vertical and the other inclined towards the ground.69 Another depiction dates from the same period, which shows Kore rising up from the underworld accompanied by the chthonic Hermes and Hekate, who is lighting the goddess’ way with two torches – on this occasion shorter ones.70 Witness accounts by Aristophanes (Ran., 351-352) and Euripides (Ion, 10721079) leave no doubts regarding the fact that torches were also carried by those who took part in nocturnal processions. Brightly burning torches, a space lit up by fire, mysterious glimmers are associated without fail in the written sources with the procession of Iacchos and the pannychis (παννυχίς) following behind him. The bright light, which in the context of the Mysteries was achieved through the burning of torches, was clearly associated with the happiness of those being initiated into the afterlife. The light of torches could thus be compared with the light of the Sun, accessible only to the enlightened, in comparison with the darkness enveloping the rest: “For on us alone do the sun and the divine daylight shine, all of us who are initiated and who led a righteous way of life . . .” (Aristoph. Ran., 454-456; translated by A. H. Sommerstein). This link between happiness and bright light was also effectively reflected in the dance with torches in Eleusis: “Then the music of the pipes will waft 67 68 69 70 For a detailed account of all participants in the Eleusinian Mysteries, see Clinton 1974. Kerényi 2000, 83-84, fig. 15, 75, fig. 11, 98, fig. 24, 25. LIMC, VI.2, Hecate 22. Parisinou 2000, pl. 14. 192 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 around you and you will see glorious light just like we have up here, and groves of myrtle and happy companies of men and women, and much clapping of hands” (Aristoph. Ran., 154; translated by A. H. Sommerstein). Some fragments of The Frogs make it possible to conclude that a dance with torches was an integral part of Iacchos’ procession. An invitation from the choir of Iacchos to come and dance with them was one of the most vivid indications of this: “Do thou give us light with thy torch and lead forth our youth as it dances, O blest one, forward to the flowery expanse of the water-meadow!” (Aristoph. Ran., 347-350; translated by A. H. Sommerstein). Thus it can be seen that there is no doubt regarding the fact that the dance with torches was an important part of the Eleusinian Mysteries. A typical feature of these nocturnal festivities was the sharp contrast, where light was concerned, between bright light and impenetrable darkness. The blinding light of torches also lit up the dances of young girls in honour of the goddess, as is testified by Aristophanes (Ran., 334-337) and Euripides (Ion, 1077-1078). Light was an important component of the most sacred scenes in the Mysteries, which made an indelible impression on those being initiated. The Bosporan finds constitute remarkable models for depictions connected with the Eleusinian Mysteries, in which torches were indispensable accoutrements of the deities. Particularly informative is the painting on a pelike from the Pavlovskiï Burial-mound.71 Also deserving of special attention is a marble relief from Kerch dating from the turn of the 5th century BC, on which a procession is depicted approaching the throne of Demeter, beside whom stands her daughter holding a torch: those in attendance are also holding torches.72 There are also torches to be seen in the painting of Pantikapaion tombs, in particular in scenes of Kore’s abduction.73 Analysis of all these and other works of art has led scholars to conclude that Eleusinian cults were widespread within the territory of the Bosporan Kingdom.74 These cults were typical for Olbia as 71 See, for example Stefani 1862; Saverkina 1986, 154-155, No. 69; Skrzhinskaya 2002, 175, figs. 2-3. 72 See Skrzhinskaya 2002, 181, fig. 5; Sokolov 1999, 155, pl. 97. 73 Rostovtsev 1914, pl. LXXXIX, 1. 74 Closer relations between a number of Bosporan poleis and Athens after Pericles’ campaign in 436 BC probably marked a stage in the consolidation of ties between the Bosporans and Eleusis and the spread of the Eleusinian cult. A decree of 418 BC has been recorded in which the Athenians called upon their allies and other Hellenes to send a tenth of their harvest to Eleusis, referring as they did so to the prophecy of the Delphic oracle (Syll.³ I, 83). Yet it was probably not until later that these links underwent significant consolidation after the end of the 5th and beginning of the 4th century BC when a united Bosporan state already existed and under the aegis of the Spartocids, who controlled the grain trade and maintained an alliance with Athens over the course of several decades. It was even suggested, in view, admittedly, of the genealogy of the late Bosporan rulers, who traced their origins back to Poseidon, Herakles and Eumolpos, the founder A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 193 well: moreover the cult of Demeter and Kore is recorded as having been more popular in the Hellenistic period than in the Classical one.75 Multi-Nozzle Lamps in the Shrines of the Eleusinian Goddesses Unfortunately, Greek fine art hardly preserved any data regarding the use of lamps in religious practice. This gap is filled, however, by the literary tradition and epigraphic documents (lamps are mentioned in the “inventory registers” of the sanctuary at Eleusis76 and the sanctuary of the Eleusinian deities in Athens)77 and also, as shall be made clear later, by materials gleaned during the excavation of the sanctuaries themselves, both in the Bosporus and in other classical centres in the Mediterranean region. The practice of dedicating torches to the goddesses is encountered everywhere, both in mainland Greece and sometimes in Southern Italy. A torch with a cruciform terminal made of bronze was discovered in the sanctuary of Demeter and Kore in Santa Maria d’Anglona. This find dates from the second half of the 4th century BC or perhaps the beginning of the 3rd century BC but no later. What attracts attention here is the fact that the dedication to Demeter on the front has been executed in the Doric dialect by a woman with the Greek name of Philomena.78 We know of a depiction of Demeter holding a similar torch from a fragment of an Italian skyphos79 and also in terracotta figurines.80 Apart from torches, another important method of lighting characteristic for the Eleusinian cult was the multi-nozzle lamp. Multi-nozzle lamps have been discovered in most of the sanctuaries of Demeter and Persephone, not just inside the sanctuaries but also in and around altars. It is important to note that traces of burning are found on them fairly seldom, which enabled the authors of this publication to suggest they were of a votive character.81 A group of the earliest lamps dating from the end of the 7th century BC originated from the sanctuary of Demeter Malophoros in Selinunt (Sicily). In that of the Mysteries (Plut. De exilio, 17; Luc. Demonax, 34; CIRB 53, 980), that the Bosporan rulers themselves had been among the initiated (see Skrzhinskaya 2002, 174-175). 75 Rusyaeva 1979, 51. 76 IG II² 1541, 1.18. 77 IG I³, 386, col. III, 1, 142; IG I³, 387, col. III, 1, 167. For commentaries, see Cavanaugh 1996, 185. 78 Neutsch & Rolley 1981, 162-164, pl. XXI, 3; Hinz 1998, 32, No. 134; 198, No. 1178, fig. 55; Parisinou 2000, 137. 79 Neutsch & Rolley 1981, pl. XXI, 4. 80 Hinz 1998, 200, fig. 58. 81 Rutkowski 1983, 324; Williams 1994, 38; Parisinou 2000, 140. 194 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 sanctuary marble multi-nozzle lamps were found which were semi-circular in shape and designed to be suspended.82 These lamps were carefully arranged inside the space between the wall of the megaron and the wall surrounding it (the peribolos). Multi-nozzle lamps dating from the 7th and 6th centuries BC were also found, together with ordinary single-nozzle lamps, in the sanctuaries of Bitalemi and Predio Sola in Gela.83 These terracotta lamps (measuring 30-40 cm in diameter) were decorated with heads of people and animals.84 Their considerable dimensions and weight made it difficult to move these lamps about, which perhaps indicates that they were used for lighting rooms in temples. Various lamps were found in other sanctuaries of Demeter and Persephone from that period as well. Unfortunately authors do not usually specify exactly which kinds of lamps were found.85 The sanctuary of Demeter Malophoros in Selinunt (Sicily) referred to above was discovered back in the 19th century and it yielded up splendid specimens of multi-nozzle lamps (Fig. 25).86 This assemblage included what are probably lamps which resemble most closely the lamps we are publishing from the Beregovoï-4 site, although they are not identical. In the most recent monograph on the lamps from Selinunt to have been published, five types of such lamps are recorded (Kranzenlampen, Types 1-5). Their date is given as falling in the period from the 6th to the 4th centuries BC inclusive, although, as M. Hermanns notes, some specimens are still to be found in levels of the 1st century BC and 1st century AD.87 The lamp which resembles those examined by us at the Beregovoï-4 site is an almost perfectly preserved specimen,88 currently held in the Palermo museum.89 This lamp is conical in shape and has four surviving tiers with nozzles. The lamp is 32 cm high and its maximum diameter is 17.8 cm. It belongs to the Kranzenlampen 5 type according to the classification compiled by M. Hermanns.90 Another lamp of the same type – SL 20327 with three tiers of nozzles – also closely resembles the lamps from the Beregovoï-4 site.91 82 Beazley 1940; Hinz 1998, 147; Parisinou 2000, 13. 83 Orlandini 1963, 34-39, figs. 14-16; Parisinou 2000, 139. 84 Similar lamps have also been found in other sanctuaries (Galli 2004, 58-59, pl. 6, 96; Type 8, Variant c). 85 See, for example White 1964, 68. 86 Gabrici 1927, fig. 163. 87 Hermanns 2004, 71-72, pls. 11 and 18. 88 Gabrici 1927, fig. 127, in the centre. 89 Inv. No. NI 6398 (Hermanns 2004, 166). 90 Hermanns 2004, 71. 91 Hermanns 2004, 231, pl. 11, 18. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 195 Fig. 25. Lamps from the sanctuary of Demeter Malophoros in Selinunt (Sicily) (after Gabrici 1927; Hermanns 2004). 196 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Another fragment from a multi-nozzle lamp from Selinunt is held in the collection of the Akademisches Kunstmuseum of Bonn University.92 It is a fragment from a tier with four nozzles, which was donated privately to the museum and dates “possibly from the second half of the 6th century BC”. It is evident that, when it comes to the dating of the fragment, U. Hübinger is following in the footsteps of D. Bailey, who dates to that period a fragment of a multi-nozzle lamp from the same Demeter Malophoros sanctuary in Selinunt93 brought to the British Museum by an unknown donor. The Santuzza sanctuary not far from Syracuse also contained a large number of multi-nozzle lamps discovered mixed up with terracotta figurines.94 Unfortunately, materials from this and many other sanctuaries have not yet been published, which means that it is impossible so far to establish the type of the lamps already discovered.95 All that most of the excavation reports published by the Italian scholars contain is a mention of the fact that multi-nozzle lamps have been found. Many multi-nozzle lamps have originated from the Demeter sanctuary in Girgenti (Sicily). They have a round reservoir for oil and several nozzles and the central part of all these lamps is hollow.96 There is a striking resemblance to be observed between them and the lamp published in this article (Cat. No. 12), which has a broken body. A lamp of the “Crown” type, fairly similar to those published here, originated from Kafizin in Cyprus (Fig. 26, 5). At that site a cave-sanctuary was investigated, in which inscriptions were found dating from the 3rd century BC. This lamp of conical shape consisted of three tiers with nozzles.97 The height of the lamp was 73 cm and the diameter of its base 36 cm. Fragments of similar lamps have been discovered in the excavations at Salamis (in Cyprus).98 One of the closest parallels to the lamps from the Beregovoï-4 site is provided by fragments of multi-nozzle lamps of the “Crown” type from the Demeter sanctuary in Knossos (Fig. 26, 1-4). For us Complex E is the most important part of the site where a whole series of lamp fragments of the type of interest to us was found, which dates from the middle to the end of the 3rd century BC.99 In addition lamps of the “Crown” type have also been found in Complex H – a 92 Hübinger 1993, 27, No. 26, pl. 3, 26. 93 Bailey 1975, 300, Q 634, figs. 118-119. 94 Hinz 1998, 108. 95 See the summary of lamp finds in the sanctuaries of Demeter and Kore: Parisinou 2000, 136-145. 96 Marconi 1926, 143, fig. 33. 97 Cook 1950, 14, fig. 11; Oziol 1977, 68-69; pl. 9, 155. 98 Oziol 1977, pl. 9, 154. 99 Coldstream 1973, 31-35, pl. 15, 34-40. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 197 Fig. 26. Multi-nozzle lamps and fragments of the latter. 1-4 – Chios, Crete (after Coldstream 1973); 5 – Cyprus (after Oziol 1977); 6 – Nymphaion (after Khudyak 1962). 198 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 pit where rubbish from the sanctuary was discarded, to which only a wide date can be assigned – from the 5th century BC to the 2nd century AD.100 When studying the literature specially devoted to the publication of materials from various Demeter sanctuaries, the impression has emerged that authors of publications have by no means always arrived at a correct interpretation of finds of ‘single-nozzle’ lamps. Some of them could quite easily have been terminals of multi-nozzle lamps of the “Crown” type, which in some respects are similar to the specimens we are publishing. Among single-nozzle lamps, both hand-moulded ones101 and wheel-turned lamps have been recorded, discovered together with votive vessels, terracottas and kernoi102 near altars or in special pits.103 The ‘miniature’ lamps found in Selinunt could also have been terminals104 separated from their bases. Incidentally, another possibility for the use of these lamps/terminals can be illustrated by a further lamp from Selinunt.105 This lamp, published by E. Gabrici, is currently held in Palermo.106 Eleven singlenozzle lamps have been arranged on a round base (Fig. 25, 1; bottom centre). The overall diameter of this lighting device is 18 cm and it is approximately 5 cm high.107 It is possible to imagine that various lamps/terminals from Taman could have been affixed to a base in this way as well. A lamp from Gortyn in Crete consists of a wide round base supported on a high foot, on which 14 single-nozzle lamps have been arranged.108 The diameter of the base measures 33.5 cm and the height of each lamp is nearly 5 cm. A second lamp originating from that place was also supported by a high foot consisting of a single deep oil-reservoir, round in shape, with 85 nozzles arranged in a circle.109 During excavations of the sanctuary at Eleusis, lamps were found in large quantities together with vases and terracotta figurines in levels of the 7th and 100 Coldstream 1973, 39, 44, fig. 26, 109-113. 101 Welter 1941, 23-24, pl. 10a. 102 We accept the term πλεμοχόη for kernoi vessels used at Eleusinian festivals. For more detail on this, see Pollitt 1979, 205-233; Brommer 1980, 544-549; Bakalakis 1991, 105-117; Clinton 1992, 74; Miles 1998, 95-96. From these vessels stemmed the name of the 8th day of the Mysteries – Boedromion 22 (plemochoai) (Mylonas 1961, 279). 103 Hinz 1998, 49, notes 320-321. 104 Hermanns 2004, 73-74, pls. 11-12. 105 Gabrici 1927, fig. 163, bottom centre. 106 Inv. No. NI 6331 – Hermanns 2004, fig. 9. 107 Hermanns 2004, 164. 108 Rutkowski 1983, 322-323, fig. 1. 109 Rutkowski 1983, 322-324, fig. 2. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 199 6th centuries BC.110 Unfortunately many of the finds have still not been published and still require museum researchers to embark on this work. Many lamps, admittedly single-nozzle ones, originated from the Demeter and Kore sanctuary in Mytilene on the island of Lesbos.111 Multi-nozzle lamps, as well as kernoi, have been found during excavations of the Thesmophorion in Athens.112 One of these lamps is reminiscent of those found in the sanctuary at the Beregovoï-4 site.113 It is also worth noting a fragment of a clay mould with a depiction of a draped female figure holding a torch in her left hand and with a figure of a fleeing deer above her head, which was found in the same complex. To the right the remains of a seated figure holding a sceptre have survived and in front of the figure there stands a vessel. Regardless of whom this mould was depicting – Demeter and Kore or Artemis,114 the fact that it was found in the sanctuary is very revealing. The wide date range for materials from the Thesmophorion is from the 5th to the 3rd century BC. Quite a large number of lamps of types difficult to identify have been found in wells and other complexes.115 Let us also mention the lid of a clay kernos or plemochoe (πλεμοχόη), in which the cut holes are strikingly reminiscent of similar holes cut through the walls of the lamps from the Beregovoï-4 site.116 Bearing in mind that the kernos or plemochoe could also be used as an incense burner, the similarity in their shapes is not surprising. In Athens a marble vessel – πλεμοχόη – was also found with a lid decorated with cut out triangles, which were identical to those found on the lamps from the Beregovoï-4 site as well.117 It is evident that the pottery articles were imitations of marble originals, as can also be seen from earlier examples.118 Despite the fact that materials from the Demeter and Kore sanctuary in Corinth have not yet been published in full, it can be established that lamps were found in many rooms119 and it can be remarked that lamps were among the major offerings right up until the 2nd century BC.120 Moreover the largest quantity of the latter has been recorded as dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC.121 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 Mylonas & Kourouniotes 1933, 282; Nilsson 1950, 101. Williams 1994, 38-40. Thompson 1936, fig. 23. Thompson 1936, fig. 23h. Thompson 1936; Cf. Broneer 1942, 256-257. Miles 1998, 30. Miles 1998, pl. 18, P 12423. Miles 1998, 100, fig. 13. Beazley 1940. Bookidis & Stroud 1997, 32, note 24; 37, note 35 and so on. Cole 1994, 208. Cole 1994, 207. 200 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Multi-nozzle lamps have been recorded at other sites in Greece as well – both sanctuaries122 and also in urban levels, as for example in Athens.123 Authors of these publications go out of their way to point out that these lamps were used in sanctuaries.124 When writing about multi-nozzle lamps of various types it is impossible to overlook the large quantity of specimens found in Delos.125 Despite the fact that they are not lamps of the “Crown” type, some of them could have been used for sacral purposes, just like some of the lamps excavated in the Athenian Agora126 or Olynthus.127 We do not have any doubts regarding the cultic character of the multi-nozzle lamps found in Isthmia.128 Two multi-nozzle lamps are held in the State Museums of Berlin. The first of these (from Athens) is a round flat-based vessel with 10 nozzles, in the centre of which a bowl has been placed.129 It probably dates from the first half of the 5th century BC. The second lamp in the Berlin Museums has 9 nozzles and it has been dated to the 4th or 3rd centuries BC: it originated from Southern Russia.130 Fragments of a large round and multi-nozzle lamp from Naukratis131 are held in the British Museum132 and date from the first half of the 5th century BC. Similar multi-nozzle lamps have been recorded from the Demeter sanctuary in Knossos133 and the Hemithea sanctuary in Kastabos.134 Lamps made according to the same principle but of a different shape have been found in Rhodos.135 Returning now from the Mediterranean region to the North Pontic one, we need to note that multi-tier lamps of the types in question have also been recorded in the Bosporus,136 but they would appear to have been found 122 Mortzos 1985, 31, πιν. 21b; 21d. 123 Howland 1958, pl. 41, Type 41, Nos. 524-528; Scheibler 1976, pl. 65, Nos. 360-365. 124 Howland 1958, 128; Scheibler 1976, 62. 125 Bruneau 1965, Nos. 359-361, 1943-1944, 1986-1998 et alii. 126 Howland 1958, pl. 42, 459-463 et alii. 127 Robinson 1930, fig. 298, 20. 128 Lindros Wohl 2005. 129 Heres 1969, 35, pl. 8, 86. 130 Heres 1969, 35-36, pl. 8, 87. 131 U. Schlotzhauer (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Berlin) kindly showed us a photograph of an unpublished lamp of the same shape from Naukratis, for which we should like to express our sincere gratitude. 132 Bailey 1975, 96; Q152; pls. 28-29. 133 Coldstream 1973, pl. 26, HM 6217. 134 Cook & Plommer 1966, pl. IX, 17-18. 135 Bailey 1975, pls. 74-75, Q368; pl. 76, Q365-Q370. 136 We are deliberately not discussing multi-nozzle lamps of other types originating from the territory of the Bosporan Kingdom. The use of multi-nozzle lamps in the Bosporus has been recorded from as early as the 6th century BC (Zhuravlev 2002, 177-178) but became particularly A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 201 exclusively in cultic contexts; more precisely, contexts associated with the worship of Demeter. It is of undeniable importance that multi-nozzle lamps of a similar shape have been found in the sanctuary on Mount Maïskaya, not far from the largest city in the Asiatic Bosporus – Phanagoria137 – and also in the sanctuary of Demeter in Nymphaion in the European Bosporus.138 In Nymphaion “near one of the enclosures there was a large clay lamp in the shape of a truncated cone which had been thrown there base uppermost” (Fig. 26, 6),139 while the other fragments of such lamps were found “in various places within the building”. Here it is essential to point out that numerous multi-nozzle lamps of a similar type have been found in the north-eastern part of Chersonesos (excavations led by R. Leper and M. I. Zolotarev). At the present time a monograph of this collection is being prepared.140 These materials are held in the repositories of the National Reserve “Chersonesos Taurica”.141 Incidentally, M. M. Khudyak noted in his article that the closest parallels for the multi-nozzle lamps from Nymphaion which he published are from Chersonesos and are now held in the Hermitage Museum.142 The Function of Lamps in a Sanctuary The main question which arises when lamps are being studied which were found in sanctuaries is of course that of their function. Given that, in our case, we are dealing mainly with ‘models’ of real lamps, what would appear at first glance as their most likely function is that of a votive character. Yet what needs to be remembered first of all is that – as pointed out previously – the concentration of lamp fragments and relatively complete specimens in the sanctuary widespread from the 1st century BC (Zhuravlev 2001, 131-149; Zhuravlev & Zhuravleva 2002, 1-12). In the Bosporus, including the Asiatic part, many different multi-nozzle lamps have been recorded from a variety of periods. Several multi-nozzle lamps from Phanagoria have been published in a catalogue compiled by O. Waldhauer (1914, pl. L, 526-527). They have also been recorded at the fortified settlement of Batareïka-II (Dolgorukov 1967, fig. 47, 5). This article does not aim to provide an analysis of these finds. In the context of a study of multi-nozzle lamps of the “Crown” type, all that needs to be mentioned is a bronze six-nozzle lamp on a low cone-shaped foot, which was found in the Chertomlÿk burial-mound (Alekseev, Murzin & Rolle 1991, 216-217, Cat. No. 144). 137 Marchenko 1962, pl. VI, 3. 138 Khudyak 1945, 162, pl. XX, 1-2; 1962, pl. XL, 3. The lamps are described as stemming from a context of the late-5th century BC. 139 Khudyak 1945, 162. 140 See Zhuravlev, Zolotarev & Kobzeva 2005, 129. 141 National Reserve “Chersonesos Taurica”, N903/14; 20330/59; 3573/09; 3581/09 etc. 142 Khudyak 1945, 162; 1962, 51. 202 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 in two particular places would point rather to their having been used in the course of ritual acts. Secondly another fact which points to that interpretation is their good state of preservation: the lamps were brought into the territory of the sanctuary and then deliberately broken into pieces. At the same time it would appear that their terminals were used later in a subsequent rite (or even re-used for a different purpose – as votive offerings).143 On the basis of the shape and dimensions of multi-tier lamps it can be suggested that they – like vessels of other shapes and for other functions used during the Eleusinian festivities (κέρνοι, ἐσχαρίδες, κοτυλίσκοι) – were carried on followers’ heads in the course of the procession.144 If that was the case then there would be no need for lamps to be used for their primary function (and hence the absence of traces of burning). Our lamps are only a symbol of light. If we do not look for a hidden meaning in this circumstance, then probably we need to think in terms of a formalization of the rite, a moving away from the ‘prototype’. After all we know that a large proportion of such ritual acts took place at night. The situation is rather different when we consider the small number of lamps with only one nozzle: most of these bear traces of soot on their nozzles. For the subject under discussion the following description by Pausanias of a rite honouring the two goddesses is of definite interest: “They say that what is done at the pit145 near by was instituted by a local man, Nikostratos. Even 143 What might also point to this is the breaking of hand-moulded terminals into two parts (Mother and Daughter or, rather, Daughter and Spouse). 144 Kerényi 2000, 194-198, figs. 57-65. Kerényi (2000, 196-197 and notes 21-23) with reference to scholia on Nikander (Alexipharmaca, 217), data provided by Pollux (IV, 103) and Clement of Alexandria (Protrept., II, 15, 3) writes of the appropriateness of the κερνοφόρος carrying λύχνοι on his head in Eleusis. He also refers to the close link between a ritual dance with λύχνα ἡ ἐσχαρίδα on the heads of the dancers and the mystic cult of Rhea (Cybele) and her lover Attis. Both these divine figures were represented in the sanctuary during the Hellenistic period. On the wearing of a πλεμοχόη, see Clinton 1992, 74. Among the numerous depictions portraying these vessels borne on people’s heads, let us merely recall the tablet from Ninnion already mentioned earlier in this article and currently held in the National Museum in Athens. 145 Georadar investigations carried out in 2004 identified at the narrowest part of the cape, immediately north-west of the sanctuary, a ‘gully’ in the ground of the mainland c. 16/24 m wide at the top cutting across the cape to a depth of about 7 m from the modern surface level. Unfortunately it is impossible to say when the ‘gully’ cutting off the shrine from the main part of the cape, was covered over, i.e. whether it was accessible to the ancient worshippers of the chthonic goddesses. At this juncture it is appropriate to mention a gully on the southern slope of Mount Maïskaya, which was used as a favissa, into which votive offerings and other items, which had outlived their usefulness for the sanctuary, were discarded and where close on a thousand fragments of cultic terracottas depicting the goddesses were discovered (Marchenko 1960, 104; 1963, 86). Cf. Paus. II, 35, 7: “Behind Chthonia’s temple are places the Hermioneans call Klymenos’s and Pluto’s sanctuaries and the Acherousian lake. They are all surrounded by stone parapets; in Klymenos’s sanctuary is an opening in the earth. It was through this opening that Herakles brought back Hades’ dog in the Hermionean legend”. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 203 to this day they still drop burning lights into the pit to the Maiden daughter of Demeter” (Paus. II, 22, 4: translated by P. Levi). In his comedy Thesmophoriazusae, Aristophanes exclaims: “Take up, maidens, the holy torch of the Two Nether Goddesses and in the hour of freedom dance with the loud songs of your fathers” (101-103; translated by A. H. Sommerstein).146 There is no doubt that some of the lamps could have been used in rites and then simply left in the sanctuary afterwards. There are parallels for finds of lamps at the Beregovoï-4 site in altars and escharae pits at other sanctuaries of Demeter and Kore.147 Finds of lamps in bothroi (pits) have also been recorded.148 Lamps could also have been used for shedding light on ritual food,149 but the materials from the Beregovoï-4 site do not give us any basis for asserting this. Sanctuaries of Demeter and Kore also played a conspicuous part in the making of solemn vows (Plut. Dion, XVI, 3; Nep. Dion, 8). Moreover a man making a vow had to be dressed in purple garments and hold a lit torch or lamp.150 Finally the use of lamps at funeral feasts151 was widely practised as well: this was closely connected with the cult of Persephone – ruler of the Underworld. According to the dictates of Solon, for instance, a light would be carried without fail in front of a funeral procession (Plut. Sol., 21). On the Chronology of Lamps from the Beregovoï-4 Site The stratigraphy of the sanctuary and also most of the parallels outlined above allow us to suggest, with a good deal of probability that the date for the 146 Also of interest is a description of the use of lamps in Egypt at a festival in honour of Osiris, which Herodotus gave us: “As for the festival in Saïs, on a certain night all the people who have gathered there to worship burn lots of lamps in a circle outdoors around their houses The lamps are saucers filled with salt and oil, with the wick floating on the top. They burn all night long and the traditional name for the festival is the Lamplight Festival. Even those Egyptians who do not actually attend the festival all wait for the night of the rites and burn lamps, so there are lamps alight throughout Egypt, not just in Saïs” (Hdt. II, 62; translated by R. Waterfield). 147 See Hinz 1998, 81, 106; Parisinou 2000, 146-147. 148 Parisinou 2000, 146. 149 Parisinou 2000, 147-148. 150 Hinz 1998, 97-98. An example of the use of lamps during prophecies: “They call it Market Hermes and it has a traditional oracle. In front of the statue is a stone hearthstone, with bronze lamps stuck on to it with lead. You come in the evening to consult the god, burn incense on the hearthstone, and fill up the lamps with oil; then you light them all and put a local coin (which they call a bronze bit) on the altar to the right of the god; and then you whisper in the god’s ear whatever your question is” (Paus. VII, 22, 2-3; translated by P. Levi). 151 See, for example Zubar & Sorochan 1984. 204 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 multi-nozzle lamps from the Beregovoï-4 site should fall in the second half or at the end of the 4th century or in the 3rd century BC. This is borne out not only by the dates of the lamps cited as parallels but also by the chronology of the terracotta figurines for which there are numerous parallels in sanctuaries of Demeter and Kore within the whole of the Classical oikoumene and that of the ritual vessels known as kernoi as well.152 This means that the dates suggested by us in the preliminary publications (in the 1st century BC) need to be reviewed and acknowledged as incorrect. It is interesting to turn attention to one of the terminals with three holes in it, which has a high raised rim (Cat. No. 22). In shape it is very similar to early lamps of the “small jug” type singled out in his day by O. Waldhauer,153 the appearance of which within the territory of the Bosporus falls precisely in the 3rd century BC.154 It is possible that the sanctuary was not forgotten in the Late Hellenistic period either155 and finds of Roman lamps appear to confirm that certain cultic practices were also taking place at this site in the 3rd century AD. 152 In connection with the dating of the lamps at the Beregovoï- site found in one and the same complexes as the kernoi, it would not be superfluous to note that the kernoi in the Athenian Agora were most widespread of all in the 4th century BC (Pollitt 1979, 226-227). J. Pollitt even refers to the kernoi in Athens as “a phenomenon of the 4th century BC” (Pollitt 1979, 226). Besides, the dates for many assemblages from the Athenian Agora have been revised and amended slightly: the earliest specimens are from assemblages dated to 400-390 BC, while the latest specimens are dated to the second half of the 2nd century BC (Miles 1998, 97). 153 Waldhauer 1914, 26, pl. VIII, 80-86. 154 Zhuravlev, Bÿkovskaya & Zheltikova 2006, 107. 155 In this context it would be possible to explain why multi-nozzle lamps were so widespread in the Bosporus in the 1st century BC (Zhuravlev, 2001; Zhuravlev & Zhuravleva 2002). It could be cautiously suggested that their wide distribution was connected with the religious policy pursued by Mithradates Eupator. In this connection let us remember the famous testimony provided by Paulus Orosius (VI, 5, 1) about the earthquake in the Bosporus in 63 BC, during which Mithradates Eupator took part in the festivities in honour of Ceres. Judging by that reference, the cult of Demeter was officially recognized as a state cult. To assert that the lamps of the 1st century BC were also linked with the Eleusinian cult is something for which we do not as yet have any grounds of course, but there can be no doubts as to their sacral function. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 205 Catalogue156 Multi-Tier Multi-Nozzle Lamps Type I 1. (Figs. 13, 15). Bell-shaped, multi-tier lamp (at least seven tiers): nozzles in the top tier, 10 in the 2nd, 10 in the 3rd, 11 in the 4th, 10 + 2? in the 5th, 3 + 10? in the 6th and ? in the 7th. The holes in the body of the lamp are rectangular (3 in the 2nd tier, none in the 3rd, 3 in the 4th, 4 in the 5th, 4 in the 6th and ? in the 7th). Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay. Surface all of the same colour tone. Inclusions: limestone, a little mica and chamotte. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1987, Quadrant 1, Spit 2. Inv. No. 120. Dimensions: height – 20,7 cm; width of the top tier – 11,2 cm, span of the nozzles – 12,9 cm; width of the second tier – 14,5 cm; span of the nozzles – 15,5 cm; width of the 3rd tier – 18,8 cm, span of the nozzles – 19,6 cm; width of the 4th tier – 20,6 cm, span of the nozzles – 23,5 cm. Dimensions of the holes: 4 × 2,4 cm; 3.2 × 1,9 cm; 3,5 × 2,2 cm. State of preservation: the lower section is lost and also part of the side from the level of the 4th and 5th tiers. 2. (Fig. 13). Fragment of the body and a tier of a lamp with four surviving nozzles. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2000, Quadrant IX, Spit 2. Inv. No. Б-2. Dimensions: height – 5.5 cm. 3. (Fig. 13). Fragment of the tier of a lamp with 5 surviving nozzles. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2000, Quadrant IX, Spit 2. Inv. No. Б-1. Dimensions: height – 4.3 cm (= height of the tier). 4. (Fig. 13). Fragment of the tier of a lamp with two surviving nozzles. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2002, Quadrant XVI, Spit 2. Dimensions: height – 2.7 cm (= height of the tier). 156 Catalogue No. 1 is held in the Archaeological Department of the State Historical Museum and the remaining lamps are held in the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 206 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 5. (Fig. 13). Fragment of the tier of a lamp with two surviving nozzles and a round hole beneath them. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2002, Quadrant XVI, Spit 2. Dimensions: height – 3.2 cm (= height of the tier); diameter of the hole – 1.8 cm. 6. (Fig. 13). Fragment of the tier of a lamp with two surviving nozzles. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2001, Quadrant XII, Spit 2. Dimensions: height – 1.7 cm (= height of the tier); span of the nozzles – 6.7 cm. 7. (Fig. 14). Fragment of the tier of a lamp with three surviving nozzles. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2002, Quadrant XVI, Spit 2. Dimensions: height – 4 cm (= height of the tier). 8. (Fig. 14). Fragment of the tier of a lamp with one surviving nozzle. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2000, Quadrant V, Spit 3. Dimensions: height – 2.5 cm (= height of the tier). 9. (Fig. 14). Fragment of a lamp with one surviving nozzle and with a protruding ledge below it. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2000, Quadrant IX, Spit 3. Dimensions: height – 7.8 cm. 9a. (Figs. 14, 15). Fragment of two tiers of a thin-walled lamp. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2002, surface find. Dimensions: height – 6.7 cm; span of the tiers – 4.3 cm; height of the tiers – c. 1.5 cm. Type 2 10. (Figs. 14, 15). A bell-shaped lamp with two tiers: 2 nozzles in the upper tier; ? nozzles in the lower tier; conical ‘body’; cylindrical foot with an out-turned base. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 207 Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with a grey area in the middle of the sherds. The surface colour varies in some places. Large limestone inclusions and smaller ones of mica and chamotte. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Quadrant V, Spit 2, Feature 5.4. Dimensions: height – 14.9 cm; heights/diameters: foot – 4.2/9.7 cm; ‘body’ 7.4/2.6-7.8 cm; upper tier 2.1/4.2 cm; span of the nozzles in the upper tier – 6.1 cm. Lost: 1 nozzle of the upper tier (terminal) and the upper part of the lower tier; parts of the foot and the body. 11. (Figs. 14, 15). A bell-shaped lamp with two tiers: ? nozzles in the upper tier, 4 in the lower one. The body is hemispherical and the cylindrical foot has an out-turned base. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay. Surface all of the same colour tone. Inclusions: limestone, a little mica, chamotte. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Quadrant V, Spit 2, Feature 5.4/5. Dimensions: height – 12.1 cm; heights/diameters: foot – 4.2/10.4 cm; body – 6.1/3.1-8.3 cm; tiers: upper tier – ?/?; lower tier – 2.6/11.3 cm; span of the nozzles: in the lower tier – 12.9 cm. Lost: upper tier and part of the foot and body. 12. (Figs. 16, 17) Fragment of a bell-shaped two-tier lamp; in the lower tier 4 nozzles have survived and the cylindrical foot has an out-turned base. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone, a little mica and chamotte. The surface is grey and in places dark-grey. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Quadrant V, Spit 2, Feature 5.4/5. Dimensions: height – 6.6 cm; heights/diameters: foot – 3.6/12.4 cm; body – ?/11.7 cm; lower tier – 3/15.2 cm; span of the nozzles in the lower tier – 16.7 cm. Lost: upper tier and the body. 13. (Figs. 16, 17). Fragment of a bell-shaped, two-tier lamp: in the conical body there is a round hole. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with a grey area in the middle of the sherds. Large inclusions of limestone and a considerable amount of mica and chamotte. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2000, Quadrant V, Spit 3. Inv. No. Б-4. Dimensions: height – 11.8 cm; heights/diameters: body – 7.2/3.7 – 9 cm; diameter of the hole in the body – 1.7 cm. 208 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Type 3 14. (Figs. 16, 17) ‘Bi-conical’ lamp which had had at least 3 tiers. In the body there are rectangular holes at the level of each tier. The division between the two truncated cones is a ledge in the form of a rib, which imitates the lower tiers of the lamp (with nozzles, but without a reservoir for oil). Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and a large amount of mica, chamotte. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Feature 5.1a. Dimensions: height – 9 cm; heights/diameters: lower cone – 5.6/9.1-13.8 cm; holes: lower hole – 4.1 × (at least) 2.5 cm; upper hole – length 3.6 cm. Type 4 15. (Figs. 16, 17). Conical multi-tier lamp (with at least two tiers). Conical body. The lower surviving tier imitates an oil reservoir in shape. Hand-moulded. Yellowish grey clay with shell inclusions. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Feature 5.16. Dimensions: height – 12.6 cm; heights/diameters: body – 8/4.5-10.6 cm; diameter of the second tier – 13.7 cm. Lost: terminal and lower part. 15a. (Fig. 16). Fragment of the tier of a lamp with one nozzle and with traces of misfiring. Hand-moulded. Brownish grey clay with shell inclusions. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2001, Quadrant XII, Spit 1. Inv. No. Б-4. Dimensions: 4.8 × 3 cm (height of the tier – 1.2 cm). 16. (Figs. 17, 18). Conical multi-tier lamp (with at least 3 tiers). Conical body. Hand-moulded. Yellowish grey clay with shell inclusions. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Feature 5.2. Dimensions: height – 12.8 cm; heights/diameters: body – 5.5/4.7-8.3 cm; diameter of the second tier – 10.8 cm and of the third – 12.3 cm. Lost: terminal and lower part. 17. (Fig. 18). Fragment of the lower part (foot and lower tier) of a two-tier lamp. Hand-moulded. Yellowish grey clay with shell inclusions. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Quadrant V, Spit 2, Feature 5.4/2. Dimensions: height of the foot – 5.8 cm; height of the tier – 1.6 cm. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 209 Terminals Variant I 18. (Figs. 18, 23). Lamp terminal with two nozzles. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Feature 5.4/10. Dimensions: height – 3.4 cm; height/diameter of the terminal – 2.6/4.8 cm. Variant 2 19. (Figs. 18, 23). Terminal of a lamp with two nozzles. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Quadrant V, Spit 2. Dimensions: height – 3.4 cm; height/diameter of the terminal – 2.6/4.8 cm. 20. (Figs. 18, 23). Terminal with a two-nozzle lamp. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2000, Quadrant IX, Spit 3. Inv. No. Б-5. Dimensions: height – 3.6 cm; height/diameter of the terminal – 3.2/5.2 cm. 21. (Figs. 18, 23). Terminal with a two-nozzle lamp. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Quadrant V, Spit 2. Dimensions: height – 3.7 cm; height/diameter of the terminal – 2.4/4.7 cm; span of the nozzles – 5.8 cm. Variant 3 22. (Figs. 18, 23). Terminal of a lamp containing 3 holes. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Quadrant V, Feature 5.4/6. Dimensions: height – 3.8 cm; height/diameter of terminal – 3.3/5 cm. Variant 4 23. (Figs. 18, 23). Terminal of a lamp with 3 nozzles in the shape of a small flat plate. 210 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Hand-moulded. Yellowish grey clay with shell inclusions. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2001, Quadrant V, Spit 4 (eastern part). Dimensions: height – 1.5 cm; height/diameter of the terminal – 1.5/6.3 cm. Span of the nozzles – 6.6 cm. Variant 5 24. (Figs. 20, 21). Terminal of a lamp with three nozzles. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with inclusions of limestone and mica. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2000, Quadrant IX, Spit 2. Inv. No. Б-6. Dimensions: height – 6.5 cm; height/diameter of the terminal – 3.6/5.2 cm. Variant 6 25. (Figs. 20, 21). Terminal of a lamp with 3 nozzles. Hand-moulded. Yellowish grey clay with shell inclusions. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Quadrant VI, Spit 2. Dimensions: height – 4.8 cm; height/diameter of the terminal – 4.2/6.6 cm; span of the nozzles – 7.2-8.2 cm. 26. (Figs. 20, 21). Terminal of a lamp with 3 nozzles. Hand-moulded. Yellowish grey clay with shell inclusions. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2001, Feature 12.1/2. Inv. No. Б-6. Dimensions: height – 2.4 cm; height/diameter of the terminal – 2.4/5.9 cm; span of the nozzles – 7.3 cm. 27. (Figs. 20, 21). Terminal of a lamp with 3 nozzles. Hand-moulded. Yellowish grey clay with shell inclusions. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2001, Quadrant XII, Spit 1. Inv. No. Б-1. Dimensions: height – 3.2 cm; height/diameter of the terminal – 3.2/6 cm; span of the nozzles – 6.7-7.2 cm. 28. (Figs. 20, 22). Terminal of a lamp with 3 terminals. Hand-moulded. Yellowish grey clay with shell inclusions. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2002, Quadrant XVI, Spit 2. Dimensions: height – 3.9 cm; height/diameter of the terminal – 3.9/6.1 cm; span of the nozzles – 5.4-5.7 cm. A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 211 Variant 7 29. (Figs. 20, 22). Terminal of a lamp with 4 nozzles and without an oil reservoir. Wheel-turned. Red-brown clay with limestone and mica inclusions. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2001, Quadrant XII, Spit 1. Inv. No. Б-3. Dimensions: height – 6.5 cm; height/diameter of the terminal – 1.9/5.25.4 cm; span of the nozzles – 6.4-6.6 cm. Variant 8 30. (Figs. 22, 23). Terminal of a lamp with 5 nozzles. Hand-moulded. Yellowish grey clay with shell inclusions. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Quadrant V, Spit 2, Feature 5.4/2. Dimensions: height – 3.4 cm; height/diameter of the terminal – 3.1/7.9 cm; span of the nozzles – 9-9.2 cm. Single-Nozzle lamps 31. (Figs. 23, 24). Round Attic lamp with a looped handle (lost) and a narrow, elongated nozzle bearing traces of soot, on a low foot. Pinkish brown, finely mixed clay covered with glaze the colour of the clay (beginning to flake). Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2001, Quadrant XII, Spit 2. Inv. No. Б-4. Dimensions: height – 3.7 cm; diameters: body – 7.2 cm; hole – 2.8 cm; foot – 3 cm; length of the nozzle – c. 3 cm. Lost: handle and end of the nozzle. 32. (Figs. 23, 24). Fragment of the foot (or stand) of a lamp with flat discs worked in relief. Reddish-pink clay with limestone and mica inclusions and covered with a pale slip. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Quadrant V, Spit 1. Dimensions: height – 6.7 cm; diameter – 5.5 cm. 33. (Figs. 23, 24). Red-glaze lamp with a handle in the form of a ledge, bearing traces of burning on the nozzle. Red-brown clay with limestone inclusions. The glaze is worn (and only covers the disc). 212 A. Zavoïkin, D. Zhuravlev / Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 19 (2013) 155-216 Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 1999, Quadrant IV, Feature 4.2. Dimensions: height – 2.7 cm; length of the nozzle – c. 2.3 cm; length of the handle – 2.8 cm (from the root); diameter of the body – 5.5 cm. 34. (Figs. 23, 24). Upper half: the disc with decoration in relief. It has been cast in a mould. Grey-brown clay; chestnut-brown glaze. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2001, Quadrant XII, Spit 1. Inv. No. Б-5. Dimensions: height (with the handle) – 2.2 cm; diameter – 5.8 cm; nozzle – 2.2c m. Lost: lower half and fragments of the upper disc. 35. (Fig. 23). Disc of the looped handle with decoration in relief in the form of a leaf. Red-glaze. Pinkish-brown clay with small limestone inclusions. Find-spot: Beregovoï-4 site, 2004, Quadrant XIX, Spit 3. Inv. No. Б-4. Dimensions: length – 3.9 cm; width – 3 cm; height (with handle) – 1.7 cm. Bibliography Abramov, A. P., Paromov, Ya. 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